Effect of Various Factors on DNA of Human Sperms

Effect of Various Factors on DNA of Human Sperms In vitro study of the effect of various factors on DNA of Human sperms Dave Avani1, Jain NK1, Patel Himanshu 2, Patel Madhuri 2, Bhatt Vidisha 2, Patel Komal2, Mallick Sarada3, *Srivastava Pradeep 3 Abstract Aim: Effect of various clinical compound and environmental conditions were studied for the in vitro fragmentation of the human sperm DNA, as well on the quality of semen samples. Method: The semen samples obtained from different males were then treated further to check the effects of the chemicals taken into consideration. The effects were studied through sperm chromatin dispersion test. Results: Primary results showed that the antibiotic tetracycline was the most effective chemical causing DNA damage, as compared to the other chosen compounds. Conclusion: The study concludes that the tetracycline drug is more efficient then the others in causing fragmentation of the DNA. Keywords: Sperm DNA, Fragmentation, Tetracycline, Sperm Chromatin Dispersion Test. INTRODUCTION The germ line is the most sensitive of all and can be considered as a good candidate for the measurement of the effects caused by the compounds of choice [1-4]. Today infertility is linked to many reasons such as mutation in the sperms or the egg, irradiation, and certain chemicals such as food additives, packaging materials, heat etc. Many articles have been put forward proving the adverse effects of these chemicals on the germ line especially the sperms and its DNA. The paternal genome in mammalian spermatozoa is condensed in a manner that is specific to the cell type presumably to protect the DNA during the transit from the male to the oocyte prior to fertilization. Damaged DNA has been observed in testicular, epididymal and ejaculated sperm. Temporary nicks have been observed in the sperm which were, linked to the topoisomerases activity, facilitate histone-protamine replacement, but if these nicks are not fixed they would evolve into DNA fragmentation on mature sperm [5]. Bisphenol A (BPA) used to make plastics and epoxy resins mainly comes through diet is an organic compound with the chemical formula (CH3)2C(C6H4OH)2[6-8]. It is part of the bisphenols group of chemical compounds with two hydroxyphenyl functionalities. It is a colourless solid that is soluble in organic solvents, but poorly soluble in water. Many studies also have shown that BPA has estrogenic activity in several in vitro and in vivo preparations [8-10]. Monosodium glutamate, also known as sodium glutamate or MSG, is the sodium salt of glutamic acid, one of the most abundant naturally occurring non-essential amino acids[11-13]. Industrial food manufacturers market and use MSG as a flavour enhancer because it balances, blends and rounds the total perception of other tastes. Many experiments have been carried out which have shown the harmful effects of excessive intake of MSG on the development of seminiferous tubules as well as the spermatids[14-15]. The tetracyclines are a family of antibiotics that inhibit protein synthesis by preventing the attachment of aminoacyl-tRNA to the ribosomal acceptor (A) site. Tetracyclines are broad-spectrum agents, exhibiting activity against a wide range of gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, a typical organisms commonly given in treatment[10, 16].Many studies in the past indicated that when rats were administered a significant amount of Tetracycline on daily basis the animals showed a decreased level of testosterone ultimately affecting the development of the leydig cell. No direct relationship has been observed till date on changes in the humans but many studies are being carried out to study the detrimental effects of tetracycline on human sperm cells and its DNA[17] (fig.1). Fig.1.Molecular structure of compounds: a) Molecular structure of Bisphenol A, b) Molecular structure of Monosodium Glutamate c) Molecular structure of Tetracycline. MATERIALS AND METHODS Materials Sample analysis was done for the healthy men between the ages 25-30 yrs. The inclusion criteria were only healthy men with the age between 25-30 yrs considered. On the hand exclusion criteria of the male were they should free from various diseases like Diabetes, Blood Pressure, Tuberculosis, Sexual Dysfunction Cardiac problems. The samples collected from Stem Cure Pvt Ltd, Centre for Reproductive Medicine Stem cell Development, Ahmedabad, India. The study approved by the Ethical Committee of the Department of Life Sciences, School of Sciences, Gujarat University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat (India). Sample preparation: 10 semen samples of perfectly healthy male were collected at a collection centre in a sterile jar and were brought to the laboratory. Direct swim-up technique was utilised for preparing the sperm cells for the analysis[18]. The sperm debris including the dead sperm cells was removed prior using by centrifuging the sample in a Phosphate Buffered Saline (PBS) medium at 1000 rpm for 10 minutes[19]. The sperm pellet obtained was overlaid with PBS and incubated at 37oC and the supernatant containing the motile sperms were used for the assay. Effect of heat was comparing with normal cells discussed later in the discussion section. Chemicals: Bisphenol A (BPA), Tetracycline, Monosodium Glutamate (MSG) , concentrated HCl, 0.4M Tris, 1% ÃŽ ² mercaptoethanol, 50mM EDTA, 1% SDS (sodium dodecyl sulphate), pH 7.5 was used for making Lysis I, 0.4M Tris, 2M NaCl, 1% SDS, pH 7.5 was used for making Lysis II[20], 0.09M Tris borate, 0.002M EDTA, pH 7.5 was used for making the wash buffer and pure ethanol. 0.4 gm, 0.6 gm, 0.8 gm of Tetracycline, MSG, BPA were dissolved in 100 ml of Double Distilled Water (DDW) to get 4%, 6% and 8% of concentration. Individual studies of samples were conducted using individual chemicals separately. Physical analysis of Semen: Semen sample were physically analysed after the liquefaction, and viscosity were checked by observing the droplets falling from a disposable plastic pipette. Vitality Staining: The semen sample was studied for the presence of any unwanted materials using vitality staining test. The sample was mixed and a smear was prepared on a glass slide along with eosin-nigrosin stain and was observed under the microscope at 100X magnification after the smear dried completely. The live sperm heads were seen white in colour while the dead sperm heads were stained as pink. Analysis of DNA fragmentation using the SCD Test: Slides precoated with 1% agarose were used as a base slide. Final concentration of 15-20 million sperms were mixed with 1% low melting point agarose overlaid onto base slide and covered with coverslip[21]. The slides were kept at 4 °C to get the gel solidified and later the coverslips were removed carefully. No reduction was observed, however minute reduction was there maintained with PBS. Chemicals of different concentrations i.e. 4%, 6%, and 8% (Tetracycline, MSG and BPA should be prepared freshly prior to the analysis). The slides were kept in these individual solution for time 1.5hrs and 3hrs respectively, study effect of heat was made by heating the agar mixed sample containing the slides of sperm the agar bath was heated at 45oC 55oC and 60oC. After the incubation period the slides were immediately removed and dipped in 0.08N HCl for 7minutes. The slides were then kept for Lysis in two cycles of 10 minutes followed by 5 minutes respectively. The slides were then washed with PBS buffer and dehydrated with 70%, 90% and 100% ethanol for 2minutes respectively. The slides were allowed to dry and are then observed under visible light using geimsa stain [5, 22]. RESULT Semen Analysis: The result of physical analysis of semen is as shown in Table 1. The semen samples studied were free of any contaminants and appeared normal. The pre and post wash count were also carried out which showed that the semen samples were perfectly healthy. The viscosity and the volume of each sample under study were within the normal range as suggested by the world health organisation standard. Analysis of DNA fragmentation using the SCD (Sperm Chromatin Dispersion) Test The SCD test carried out depict the effect of the chosen compounds on the sperm DNA which are represented as below. (A) Effect of Heat:- Sperm sample were subjected to heat treatment in water bath for 1.5 hrs at the temperature of 45oC and 55oC, where normal temperature of 28oC was used as control. The results are shown in fig 2.0. (B) Effect of Chemicals:-The studies were made on the percentage damage observed after chemical treatment to the sperm cells for 1.5 hrs and 3hrs of incubation time. Fig 3.0 and 4.0 depict the effect of tetracycline, BPA and MSG on sperm cells for 1.5 hrs and 3.0 hrs of incubation time respectively. Sperm cells without chemicals but buffer solution were taken as control. Various concentrations of chemicals viz, 4 – 8% was taken for the study. It was observed that tetracycline causes the maximum damage of about 92.4% after an incubation time 3hrs at 8% concentration, while the treatment with heat, monosodium glutamate and bisphenol exhibit a maximum damage of 55.6% at 55 °C, 55% and 44% respectively after an incubation time of 3hrs at 8% concentration. Table.1. Physical analysis of semen Fig.2.Effect of Heat Treatment on sperm cells Fig.3.Effect of Chemicals on sperm cells (incubation time 1.5h) Fig.4.Effect of Chemical on sperm cells (incubation time 3 h) Table.2.Anova Method DISCUSSION Statistical Data Analysis: The table 2.0 depicts below is the statistical representation of the data obtained after the SCD test. Anova test was applied using t-Test Software (Excel). It shows that the data obtained from the SCD are significant and valid. P=0.05, It was significant at 55 °C. Control groups are healthy individuals where sperm cells were preserved and treated at 28 °C without additive chemicals (MSG, BPA, and Tetracycline). Samples collected from the normal subjects. The table exhibit that F value of Tetracycline Bisphenol A and MSG are 22.24, 13.435 and 14.405 respectively the observation are significant Thus it can be said that the hypothesis given by the author is correct i.e. It was significant. Tetracycline gives a higher percentage of damage to the DNA of the sperm cells in vitro. Image Analysis of Damage after the Treatment The figures.5 (a to f) given were obtained after under a visible light observation. The figures below show the extent of damage caused by the treatment given to the cell after 3hrs of incubation. The halos seen represent the extent of damage i.e. large halos represent less damage while the cells without any halos represent the most damaged cell. The control slide cells have a normal halo around which depicts healthy DNA while the cells seen in tetracycline treated cells lack the halo which shows that the DNA of the sperm cells have been damaged to a greater extent. The slide treated with Bisphenol A shows a less amount of damaged cell in comparison to that of Tetracycline. The least damage has been in the sample treated at 45 °C shown by large halos around the cells. Hence from these figures it can be said that the tetracycline treatment produces the highest damage to the DNA of sperm cells. Fig.5.Image Analysis of Damage: a) Control Slide, b) Tetracycline at 8% concentration after 3hrs of incubation, c) Bisphenol A at 8% concentration after 3hrs of incubation, d) Monosodium Glutamate at 8% concentration after 3hrs of incubation , e) Effect of temperature at 45oC f) Effect of temperature at 55 °C CONCLUSION The study concludes that the drug tetracycline used for antibiotics for patients is proven to cause damage to the sperm DNA along with monosodium glutamate which is a flavour enhancing substance, as well as Bisphenol A which is a component of food packaging materials such as plastic bottles, feeder bottles etc. Though the exact mechanism by which the DNA is being affected is not known it can be said that exposing the sperm with the highest concentration of the above considered chemicals can be one of the many reasons which cause DNA damage which may lead to infertility in the present lifestyle. These observations also lead to conclude that the drug tetracycline is more effective then the others in causing fragmentation of the DNA and hence affecting its integrity. References 1.Agarwal, A. and T.M. Said, Role of sperm chromatin abnormalities and DNA damage in male infertility. Human Reproduction Update, 2003. 9(4): p. 331-345. 2.Ward, M.A. and W.S. Ward, A model for the function of sperm DNA degradation. Reproduction, Fertility and Development, 2004. 16(5): p. 547-554. 3.Graham, C., Reproductive biology of the great apes: comparative and biomedical perspectives. 2012: Elsevier. 4.Gonzà ¡lez-Marà ­n, C., J. Gosà ¡lvez, and R. Roy, Types, causes, detection and repair of DNA fragmentation in animal and human sperm cells. International journal of molecular sciences, 2012. 13(11): p. 14026-14052. 5.Fernà ¡ndez, J.L., et al., The sperm chromatin dispersion test: a simple method for the determination of sperm DNA fragmentation. Journal of andrology, 2003. 24(1): p. 59-66. 6.Allard, P. and M.P. Colaià ¡covo, Bisphenol A impairs the double-strand break repair machinery in the germline and causes chromosome abnormalities. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2010. 107(47): p. 20405-20410. 7.Sakaue, M., et al., Bisphenol-A affects spermatogenesis in the adult rat even at a low dose. JOURNAL OF OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH-ENGLISH EDITION-, 2001. 43(4): p. 185-190. 8.Kundakovic, M. and F.A. Champagne, Epigenetic perspective on the developmental effects of bisphenol A. Brain, behavior, and immunity, 2011. 25(6): p. 1084-1093. 9.Calafat, A.M., et al., Exposure of the US population to Bisphenol A and 4-tertiary-Octylphenol: 2003-2004. Environmental health perspectives, 2008: p. 39-44. 10.Ye, X., et al., Potential external contamination with bisphenol A and other ubiquitous organic environmental chemicals during biomonitoring analysis: an elusive laboratory challenge. Environmental health perspectives, 2013. 121(3): p. 283-286. 11.Ismail, N., Assessment of DNA Damage in Testes from Young Wistar Male Rat Treated with Monosodium Glutamate. Life Science Journal, 2012. 9(1). 12.Belluardo, N. and M. Bindoni, Effects of early destruction of the mouse arcuate nucleus by monosodium glutamate on age-dependent natural killer activity. Brain research, 1990. 534(1): p. 225-233. 13.Walker, R. and J.R. Lupien, The safety evaluation of monosodium glutamate. The Journal of nutrition, 2000. 130(4): p. 1049S-1052S. 14.Yamaguchi, S. and C. Takahashi, Interactions of monosodium glutamate and sodium chloride on saltiness and palatability of a clear soup. Journal of Food Science, 1984. 49(1): p. 82-85. 15.Là ¶liger, J., Function and importance of glutamate for savory foods. The Journal of nutrition, 2000. 130(4): p. 915S-920S. 16.Hargreaves, C.A., et al., Effects of co-trimoxazole, erythromycin, amoxycillin, tetracycline and chloroquine on sperm function in vitro. Human reproduction, 1998. 13(7): p. 1878-1886. 17.Tortora, G.J. and B.H. Derrickson, Principles of anatomy and physiology. 2008: John Wiley Sons. 18.Parrish, J., A. Krogenaes, and J. Susko-Parrish, Effect of bovine sperm separation by either swim-up or Percoll method on success of in vitro fertilization and early embryonic development. Theriogenology, 1995. 44(6): p. 859-869. 19.LASSO, J.L., et al., Mechanism of superoxide dismutase loss from human sperm cells during cryopreservation. Journal of andrology, 1994. 15(3): p. 255-265. 20.Chohan, K.R., et al., Comparison of chromatin assays for DNA fragmentation evaluation in human sperm. Journal of andrology, 2006. 27(1): p. 53-59. 21.Enciso, M., et al., Infertile men with varicocele show a high relative proportion of sperm cells with intense nuclear damage level, evidenced by the sperm chromatin dispersion test. Journal of andrology, 2006. 27(1): p. 106-111. 22.Agarwal, A. and S.S. Allamaneni, Sperm DNA damage assessment: a test whose time has come. Fertility and sterility, 2005. 84(4): p. 850-853. 1

A Comparison of Hubris in Catcher in the Rye, Scarlet Letter, and Great Gatsby :: compare and contrast essay examples

Hubris in the Protagonists of Catcher in the Rye, Scarlet Letter, and Great Gatsby       Aristotle praised Sophocles' King Oedipus as the definitive Greek tragedy; however, he could not have surmised the influence of Oedipus' tragic pride on modern day literature and philosophy. Hubris, the only true crime, has had a threefold influence: it is a reason for downfall as well as a characteristic of criminal motivation; it is manifested in the diverse protagonists of Salinger, Fitzgerald, and Hawthorne; and it is forgiven only by repentance for wrongdoing and the complete surrender of pride.    The erroneous idea that pride is only a predominant characteristic of crime, rather than a crime itself, would put tragic hero Oedipus on the same level as serial killer Charles Manson: while both are guilty of committing heinous acts, Oedipus relinquishes his pride and, ironically suffering under his own proclamation of exile, does penance for his crimes, whereas Manson shows no remorse for his vile and disturbing bloodletting. Oedipus' ultimate repentance is proof that he realizes his hubris and understands his mistakes, as irreparable as they may be.    All human filthiness in one crime compounded! Unspeakable acts-I speak no more of them. Hide me at once, for God's love, hide me away... Touch me, and have no fear. On no man else But on me alone is the scourge of my punishment. (64)    Had Oedipus sought to blame another for his crimes, or denied his own responsibility for his actions, he would have been no nobler than a common criminal; Oedipus is redeemed by his strength of character.    The hamartia of hubris lives on 2500 years after Aristotle lauded King Oedipus as the quintessential Greek tragedy; pride has evolved into an integral characteristic of the majority of literary characters from J.D. Salinger's angry, disillusioned Holden Caulfield to F. Scott Fitzgerald's idealistic Jay Gatsby to Nathaniel Hawthorne's tortured Reverend Dimmesdale.    Holden's pride in his sarcastic perception of the world around him perpetuates his cynicism and frustration with life, making him unrealistic and incapable of finding happiness. He believes himself omniscient, and that other "people never notice anything" (Salinger 9). Oedipus' belief in his own infallibility makes him equally unrealistic; soon after Oedipus' sins are revealed, the chorus of Elders conveys a Holden-esque message of discontent:    All generations of mortal man add up to nothing! Show me the man whose happiness was anything more than illusion

Aristotle on the Soul Essay

Aristotle’s notion differs from the usual conception of a soul as some sort of substance occupying the body, existing separately and eternally. To him, the soul is the essence of a living thing. The soul is what makes an organism an organism at all by actualizing its potential for life, and it’s constituted by its capacity for activities essential to that specific type of being. His investigation into the nature of the soul demonstrates basic principles of his philosophical theories at work, including Hylomorphism, potentiality and actuality, and his four causes. His use of these theories in analyzing and teasing out the complexities of the soul make for a cohesive and comprehensive study, easily amenable with his other works. In this paper I will analyze his notion of the soul as described in De Anima, recounting how he came to define the soul, the explanation of the soul, how the souls of different kinds of ensouled beings differ, and his unique concept of how the soul is related to the body. Aristotle begins Book 1 of De Anima by stating that since the soul is a principle of animals, and here I will interpret animals to mean more broadly beings, describing its essence has implications beyond its obvious scope. In unfolding the nature of the soul, it is possible to determine which attributes belong to the soul alone and which belong to the organism in virtue of having a soul (Aristotle, De Anima 402a). So besides exploring the nature of life, his analysis will also seek to answer the question of whether all mental states (of the soul) are also material states of the body, or whether some attributes of the soul are unique to it. In doing so, we are confronted with the interesting implication of Aristotle’s position on the mind/body problem, to which I will get to later on. Returning to the question at hand (what is the soul? ), Aristotle starts his investigation by use of his explanatory theory of Hylomorphism, which states that substances are compounds of matter and form, and change occurs when form actualizes matter (Shields). There are three sorts of substances; form, matter, and the compound of form and matter. Matter is potentiality and form is actuality. Form actualizes matter, which possesses the potential to be what it is. So using Aristotle’s example of a bronze statue, the matter, in this case the bronze, only actualizes it’s potential of being a statue when it acquires the form, or the shape and features. Of interest is the third kind of substance, compounds, which make up living beings. The body is the substance as matter, so the soul is the substance as form or shape. Here we get to Aristotle’s preliminary definition of the soul as the actuality of a natural body having life potentially (Aristotle, De Anima 412). It is in virtue of this form, the soul, that makes an organism alive. Without the soul, the body would only have the capacity for life potentially, and so the soul is the essence (the form) of living things. This preliminary definition is taken a step further when Aristotle identifies the soul as the â€Å"first actuality of a natural body that is potentially alive† (Aristotle, De Anima 412a). He claims that the actuality that is the soul is like the actuality that is knowledge, in that we speak of it in two ways. We can distinguish between a state of knowing x and a state of attending to the knowledge of x, where the latter is more of an active process. The passive of state of knowing x is the first actuality, first because it must necessarily come prior to attending or remembering that knowledge i. e. potential precedes actual. Similarly, the soul of a sleeping person is like the passive state, the first actuality, while the soul of an awake person is like the active state. The soul must be the first actuality, for if not we would be forced to say a sleeping animal lacks a soul, a conclusion we do not want to make (Aristotle, De Anima 412a-412b). First actuality seems to correspond to a capacity to engage in the activity of the second actuality, and in this way is a kind of potential to exercise some function, like the ability to engage in thought. Aristotle makes this clear when he states that, â€Å"If the eye, for instance, were an animal, sight would be its soul† (Aristotle, De Anima 412b). Sight is the capacity of the eye for seeing, where sight is the form and the eye is the matter. The first actuality is the capacity for seeing, and the second actuality is seeing, actively exercising the potential ability. So it seems that beyond defining the soul as the ‘first actuality of a natural body that is potentially alive’, we can say the soul is a set of capacities that characterize living things. These characteristic capacities are different in different beings, and we will see that it is by these that Aristotle creates his hierarchy of ensouled beings or the degrees of souls. I will return to this distinction later in this paper, when describing how the souls of different ensouled beings differ. At this point we have a definition of the soul, but as Aristotle stresses throughout his various works, we must determine the cause or explanation in order to truly grasp the essence, and therefore get at complete picture of his view of the soul. The definition just given explains the what, but a full account must explain the why. He states in the Physics, â€Å"for our inquiry aims at knowledge; and we think we know something only when we find the reason why it is so, i.e. , when we find its primary cause† (Aristotle, Physics 194b). His criteria for an adequate definition, one that is sufficient for knowledge, rest on his theory of causation and explanation. The four causes include the material cause, formal cause, efficient cause, and final cause. Material cause is what something is made of, the formal cause is the form or pattern of which a thing is what it is, the efficient cause refers to the agent of change or rest, and the final cause is the intended purpose of the change or the reason why a thing is done (Shields). We must, therefore, determine why the soul is what it is in virtue of these four general causes. The soul is the principle and the cause of the living body, for it is in virtue of the soul that the body is alive, and thus it plays an explanatory role. It is the cause of the living body in three of the four ways, as â€Å"the source of motion, as what something is for, and as the substance of ensouled bodies†(Aristotle, De Anima 415), corresponding to the efficient cause, the final cause, and the formal cause respectively. It is the source of motion in that it causes growth and decay in the organism. The soul is also the cause of the living body by being the final cause, as the body is merely an organ for the sake of the soul, aimed at the soul. And finally, the soul is the formal cause of the living body for it causes life by being the form and actuality of what is potentially. The body makes up the fourth cause, the material cause, by being the matter that makes up a living organism (Aristotle, De Anima 415). I will use Aristotle’s example of the nature of a house as described in Book One, when he is discussing the importance of form, in order to better illustrate the necessity for analysis of a concept under his theory of causation and explanation. To merely define a house as stones, bricks, and timbers, is not to capture its full essence. A house is stones, bricks, and timbers (material cause), built into an enclosed structure (formal cause), fashioned together by a carpenter (efficient cause), in order to provide shelter from the elements (final cause). We can describe the what, but without further details about the explanation, we don’t really know the nature of a house. Similarly the soul is why, it gives the explanation for, the life activities of a living body. At this point Aristotle’s notion of the soul is quite clear; it is the first actuality of a natural body that is potentially alive, it is a set of capacities for life-giving and defining activities of organisms, and it is the form, the source of motion, and the means (it directs) to the end of the living body. Souls of different living beings are differentiated by their capacities to engage in the activities characteristic of that type of organism, which comprise their livelihood and survival. It is these differentiating faculties that make up the soul. Among these faculties are the nutritive and reproductive, perceptive, locomotive, and the capacity for thought and understanding. Aristotle claims, â€Å"the soul is the principle of the potentialities we have mentioned—for nutrition, perception, understanding, and motion—and is defined by them† (Aristotle, De Anima 413). There are three types of souls, arranged in a nested hierarchy, so the possession of a higher soul entails possession of all that are below it. The lowest, or most basic, in this hierarchy is the nutritive soul. All living things possess the capacity for self-nourishment, for without this they would not live. Next is the sensitive soul, which is possessed only by animals. The highest type of soul is the rational soul, belonging only to humans. These three souls are differentiated by their function, corresponding to the ensouled being in possession of the soul with the power to exercise that function. While the animal soul possesses the nutritive and the sensitive, and the human soul the rational as well, each has but one unified soul with a various sets of capacities (Shields). The nutritive soul is the potentiality held by all living things to preserve it and equip it for life. The function of this soul is the use of nourishment and generation, or reproduction. Generation is the most natural function, as it is a means for a living being to participate in the future (the â€Å"everlasting and divine†) by producing something else of its own sort. The use of nourishment allows the being to preserve itself, only existing while it is nourished. Nourishment allows an organism to grow as well as decay, according to its form. Since all living things possess the nutritive soul, all living things have the capacity for self-nourishment, growth, decay, and for reproduction. Further, since all nourishment involves digestion, and digestion involves heat, all beings contain heat (Aristotle, De Anima 415-416). The sensitive, or perceptive soul, distinguishes plants from animals. Perception is a type of alteration, in that a suitable sense-organ in perception is affected or changed by an external object. The external object acts as the agent, possessing the qualities in actuality that the sense-organ possesses potentially. Aristotle describes that it is through an intermediate condition, such as air, that sense organs receive the forms or qualities of the objects of perception, not the matter, when involuntarily acted upon by the external object. Thus, the sensitive soul has the capacity to receive sensible forms, resulting in perception. The sense-organs become like the agent after being affected, or receiving the qualities (Shields). Again, we can see Aristotle returning to his theory of Hylomorphism in describing perception as the change in the sense-organ as a result of the acquisition of form. The potential of the sense-organ is made actual in virtue of the external object which possesses the form in actuality. Aristotle states that every animal has the sense of touch, but not all possess the sense of sight, hearing, taste and smell. Animals are further distinguished along these lines; while each possesses a nutritive and a sensitive soul, there are various degrees of complexity of the latter soul corresponding to the activities of the animal. Aristotle continues further that the possession of the perceptive soul implies that the animal has the capacity to desire, and desiring includes appetite, emotion, and wish. He also determines possession of this soul entails the ability to feel pleasure and pain and it is in virtue of this soul that some animals possess the power of locomotion (Aristotle, De Anima 413-415). The rational soul, perhaps the most difficult section to interpret of De Anima, is essential and indicative of humans alone. It is in virtue of the rational soul, the intellect, that we come to know and understand things. The intellect is the seat of thought and thus reason. Thinking is similar to perception, as it involves the reception of form by a suitable capacity. However, while the object of perception is external and is the composite of form and matter, the object of thought is within the soul and is form alone (Shields). While hard to follow, I believe the objects of thought are the forms of forms; they get their intelligible forms in virtue of the sensible forms sensed in perception. Aristotle discusses the concept of â€Å"appearances†, which are different from perceptions and beliefs, for appearances exist while we sleep, with no external stimuli actualizing the ‘sensation’, and beliefs involve conviction, while appearances do not. Appearances are images resembling objects of perception (Aristotle, De Anima 428). It is helpful to think of appearances as the representation of reality we see in imagination. I believe Aristotle is claiming that it is these appearances that are the objects of thought. In intellection, the mind is made to be like the object of thought through reception of its intelligible form. The intellect is pure potentiality, it potentially has all of these objects of thought, and only in thought do these intelligible forms become actualized in the mind (Shields). As Aristotle’s philosophical worldview rests on a Hylomorphic principle, it is difficult to see how the alteration, bringing the intellect from potentiality to actuality in thought, comes about. In perception, this is in virtue of an external object that acts as an agent for change in the sense-organ. But what is the agent of change in intellection? Aristotle divides the intellect into the active and passive intellects. The active intellect acts as the agent of change; when the mind thinks the active intellect actualizes the intelligible forms in the passive intellect. The passive intellect stores the concepts of knowledge and intelligible forms in potentiality, to be recalled by the active intellect during thought. This means however, that the actual must precede the potential, contrary to what was discussed above. The nature of the active intellect is its activity, so it must be unremittingly active in order to cause the passive intellect to act and us to have thoughts and reason. If it is continuously active, this part of the rational soul must be eternal and thus stands in stark contrast with the rest of the souls Aristotle posits, but this controversial point is something I will not take up in this paper (Shields). Returning to the more broad implications of De Anima and Aristotle’s larger philosophical framework, we can analyze his notion of the soul in terms of the mind/body problem. Explicating his position, or lack thereof, on this matter will also illustrate his views on the soul in terms of unity, oneness, seperability, and mortality. Substance dualism is the position that the mind is separate from the body and that the mind is non-physical, often posited as being eternal. Aristotle’s conception of the soul, however, is that it is not ontologically distinct from the body. All nourishment, perception, and even thinking require a body. Further, as the living body is the composite of form (soul) and matter (body), it represents one inextricable substance. The soul and body are inseparable, except for perhaps the active intellect. While we can conceptually distinguish between a soul and a body, or form and matter, they are but one substance, related in terms of this composite. So when the body perishes, the soul does as well. Leaving aside the debated active intellect, the soul cannot be immortal. Therefore, Aristotle cannot be said to be a substance dualist. Materialism, on the other hand, claims that all that exists is physical and that substance is pure matter. But as has been said, Aristotle’s position on the soul takes it to be pure form and thus immaterial. The primary substance of a living body is the unity of body and soul, which is not purely matter. So, he cannot be a materialist either. While Aristotle does not clearly take a position towards this dilemma, he does suggest a new way of viewing it. Instead of presupposing the mind and speculating on the body as dualists do, or vice versa if you are a materialist, identifying the two as a unit and illuminating the association in terms of unity relations may prove more feasible. To summarize, Aristotle’s notion of the soul is that it is the first actuality of a natural body that is potentially alive. The concept of first actuality represents a sort of capacity for undertaking the action that characterizes the second actuality. So the soul is life-giving and facilitates the body for undertaking the actions necessary for survival and well-being. Plants have only the nutritive soul, enabling them to sustain themselves and reproduce. Animals have this soul as well as the sensitive soul, which facilitates perception and feelings of pleasure, pain, desire, appetite, etc. Humans are further distinguished in virtue of the elusive rational soul, which gives us the unique power of understanding, thought, and rationality. Aristotle’s soul is unlike other conceptions as it posits that although the body and soul is one, inseparable unit, the soul is immaterial while the body is physical. His consistency on his views of the soul with his views of nature and reality are obvious, as he frequently makes use of his broader theories of Hylomorphism, his four causes, and the potential/actual nature of everything that exists, making for a powerfully cohesive portfolio. Works Cited Aristotle, Terence Irwin, and Gail Fine. â€Å"De Anima. † Aristotle: Selections. Indianapolis: Hackett Pub. , 1995. 402-34. Print. Aristotle, Terence Irwin, and Gail Fine. â€Å"Physics. † Aristotle: Selections. Indianapolis: Hackett Pub. , 1995. 184-263. Web. Shields, Christopher. â€Å"Aristotle’s Psychology. † (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). N. p. , 23 Aug. 2010. Web. 20 Dec. 2012.

Mahatma Gandhi The British Rule Of India - 2346 Words

Mohandas Karmchand Gandhi was born during the British rule in India on October 2, 1869. Gandhi in the year of 1888 was sent to England to pursue law, where he developed interest in the philosophy of nonviolence as expressed in the holy Bhagawad Gita, a scared text of Hindu scriptures. However after passing the bar, he found little accomplishment in his attempt to practice law in India, which is when he accepted a position in South Africa, where he assisted on a lawsuit. (Mohandas Gandhi, 2015) In South Africa, he involved himself in an attempt to end discrimination against the minority Indians residing there. During this course, he developed â€Å"satyagarha†, which translates into â€Å"soul force†, or an approach of non-violence resistance, against the British governments in South Africa. In the years following the World War I, Gandhi became a leading figure in India for his struggle to achieve independent from the mighty British rule. 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